Pakistani literature in English began its distinctive journey with Qurratulain Heider’s groundbreaking novel “Aag ka Darya” (The River of Fire) in 1957. This pivotal work marked the emergence of a literary tradition that would subsequently chronicle the nation’s complex historical narrative through fiction.
Throughout the years, notable Pakistani English literature writers have crafted powerful narratives reflecting national identity and historical trauma. Abdullah Husain’s “Udas Naslain” (A Tale of Sad Generations, 1963) particularly stands out as it traces three generations living under British occupation from 1913 to 1947, transforming family history into a chronicle of collective sorrow. Furthermore, the post-1971 period witnessed significant literary developments with works like Intizar Husain’s “A Letter from India” (1974), which captured the people’s trauma following the events of 1971. In addition to these historical reflections, the history of Pakistani English literature has been enriched by women writers who have made remarkable contributions to the literary landscape.
This article explores the evolution of the Pakistani novel in English, examining how it has developed from its early foundations through periods of national disillusionment, stylistic innovations, and the emergence of diaspora narratives that continue to shape this vibrant literary tradition.
Early Foundations of the Pakistani Novel in Pakistani Literature
“According to the Hindus, the Muslims were to blame. The fact is, both sides killed. Both shot and stabbed and speared and clubbed. Both tortured. Both raped.” — Khushwant Singh, Celebrated Indian novelist and journalist, author of ‘Train to Pakistan’
The foundational works of Pakistani English literature emerged from a complex historical backdrop of colonial rule, independence, and national identity formation. Rather than appearing suddenly, these novels drew from rich cultural traditions while addressing the trauma of Partition and the challenges of crafting a new national narrative.
Qurratulain Hyder and the birth of the modern novel
Qurratulain Hyder’s epic novel “Aag ka Darya” (River of Fire) published in 1957, established the framework for modern Pakistani fiction. This groundbreaking work spans an ambitious 2,000 years of subcontinental history, revealing history’s cyclical nature through recurring characters and relationships. Hyder’s experimental “transcreation” approach defied traditional narrative conventions—characters reincarnate throughout different historical periods, with a Vedic scholar named Gautam repeatedly falling in love with Champa across centuries. Though sometimes overwhelming with dense rhetoric and abrupt time shifts, Hyder’s modernist techniques established her as a pioneer in Urdu literature, albeit one whose experimentation sometimes limited her international recognition compared to contemporaries like Khushwant Singh and Ismat Chughtai.
Abdullah Husain’s portrayal of generational trauma
Abdullah Husain’s “Udas Naslain” (The Weary Generations), published in Urdu in 1963 and self-translated into English in 1999, stands as another cornerstone of Pakistani fiction. The novel follows protagonist Naim through pivotal historical events—from fighting for the British in World War I to witnessing the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919 and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar killings of 1930. Through Naim’s experiences, Husain portrays how historical trauma affected subsequent generations, creating what he termed “weary generations” who had “stopped struggling following the ‘easy’ achievement of independence”. Nevertheless, the novel offers a nuanced exploration of class divisions, revealing how partition maintained “the social and political differences between the elites and the masses”.
Themes of identity and partition in early fiction
Early Pakistani novels grappled with questions of national identity in what historian Ayesha Jalal termed the “twilight zone between myth and history”. These works reflected the struggle to “define an identity that is both national and Islamic”, while simultaneously establishing a distinct Pakistani literary tradition separate from Indian literature. Consequently, novels like Mumtaz Shahnawaz’s “The Heart Divided”—Pakistan’s first English novel—directly addressed Partition trauma through familial experiences. Indeed, most early Pakistani fiction focused on “Partition, houses and property lost and the civil war in what was once East Pakistan”, examining the complex relationship between religious nationalism and the severed past with India that involved “othering” the national self from the rival neighbor.
Post-1971 Fiction and National Disillusionment in Pakistani Literature
The 1971 civil war and subsequent separation of East Pakistan marked a profound turning point in Pakistani literary expression. This national trauma triggered a wave of soul-searching fiction that examined the fragmentation of national identity and collective disillusionment.
Exploring East Pakistan through fiction
The formation of Bangladesh in 1971 provided Pakistani writers with complex material for literary examination. Novelists grappled with questions of belonging, citizenship, and national imagination in their narratives. This historical rupture prompted authors to confront how fiction could help readers process what the “paring down of the country means for any abiding articulation of a Pakistani group identification”. English and Urdu fiction alike attempted to reckon with changing notions of Pakistani identity after this pivotal civil war.
Also Read: Evolution of Poetry in Pakistani Literature in English
Altaf Fatima and the recurring theme of migration
Born in Lucknow, Altaf Fatima migrated to Pakistan during Partition in 1947 and settled in Lahore, eventually becoming a leading figure among women Urdu writers. Her novel “Chalta Musafir,” set against the backdrop of Bangladesh’s independence, explored the 1971 conflict through a Pakistani lens. However, the work received poor reviews for presenting a one-sided narrative that overlooked crucial aspects of the conflict, including “the Bengali language movement and Pakistani army’s actions”. Nevertheless, her earlier acclaimed novel “Dastak Na Do” (1965) skillfully examined themes of identity, culture, and migration through the perspectives of two characters—Geeti and Liu, a Chinese immigrant.
Masud Mufti’s account of a divided nation
Masood Mufti’s firsthand experience as a civil servant in Dhaka during its fall to Indian forces and Mukti Bahini offered a unique perspective on the national tragedy. Held as a prisoner of war for almost two years after Bangladesh’s inception, Mufti documented this traumatic period in several works. His diary “Lamhe” (1978) powerfully recorded “the perilous moments” of this period, whereas his reportage “Chehre” (1974) chronicled East Pakistan’s final days and earned him the prestigious Adamjee Literary Award. Throughout his career, Mufti remained preoccupied with Pakistan’s history and state of affairs, with his last work “Do Meenaar” (2020) reflecting “his deep concerns about Pakistan and his disappointment at what we have done to the land he loved so deeply”.
Shifts in Style: From Realism to Mysticism and Protest in Pakistani Literature
“I am back in my beloved city. The scene of desolation fills my eyes with tears. At every step my distress and agitation increases. I cannot recognize houses or landmarks I once knew well. Of the former inhabitants, there is no trace. Everywhere there is a terrible emptiness.” — Khushwant Singh, Celebrated Indian novelist and journalist, author of ‘Delhi’
The political upheavals of the late 1970s and early 1980s ushered in a profound shift in Pakistani fiction, moving beyond realism toward mysticism, absurdism, and political protest. This period marked a significant departure from earlier narrative techniques as authors grappled with changing social dynamics under authoritarian rule.
Intizar Husain’s Basti and the politics of memory
Published in 1979, Intizar Husain’s Basti portrayed the tumultuous politics during the final years of Ayub Khan’s regime (1967-1969). The novel centers on Zakir, a history professor whose memories serve as an echo-chamber of reminiscence. “I am on the run from my own history, and catching my breath in the present,” Zakir notes, revealing his struggle with displacement. Notably, Husain weaves realist imagery with mythology and folklore from Indian, Persian, and Arabic traditions to create a non-linear narrative. Through this approach, he transforms personal memories into a form of “retrieving knowledge about those modes of living from the past which could be used for the redemption of future time”.
Anwar Sajjad’s critique of authoritarianism
The Garden of Delights (1980) by Anwar Sajjad represents an oblique criticism of non-democratic, arbitrary rule. His protagonist faces a callous human situation, gradually stripped of agency until joining wandering dervishes in Sufic dance—a symbolic restoration of confidence previously shattered by societal patterns. Essentially, Sajjad’s work constitutes protest-writing in fictional form, addressing the oppressive political climate of its time.
Anis Nagi and the rise of absurdist fiction
Anis Nagi (1939-2010), a prolific author of 79 books, pioneered absurdist fiction in Pakistan. His novel Behind the Wall (1981) depicts an unbalanced equation between man and environment, with a protagonist driven to suicide by crime and hypocrisy. Primarily influenced by existentialist writers like Sartre and Camus, Nagi’s works uniquely addressed contemporary life rather than dwelling on the past. Despite critical neglect, he persisted in bringing Punjabi linguistic flavor into Urdu prose, defying traditional standards.
Bano Qudsia’s exploration of urban-rural identity
Bano Qudsia’s Raja Gidh (The King Vulture, 1984) follows this stylistic evolution, featuring a protagonist caught between rural roots and urban environment. The novel explores psychological, moral, and spiritual dimensions through a love triangle between sociology students at Government College Lahore. Additionally, it employs the vulture metaphor to symbolize ethical transgression, suggesting that pursuing forbidden things results in psychological deterioration.
Women Writers and the Rise of Diaspora Fiction in Pakistani Literature
The post-Independence era marked a significant expansion of women’s literary contributions in Pakistan, with female authors emerging as influential voices in both Urdu and English fiction. Their work often traversed geographical and cultural boundaries, creating a distinctive diaspora literature that reflected changing national narratives.
Zahida Hina and the transcultural narrative
Zahida Hina’s collection “Raah mein Ajal hai” (Death is in the Way, 1993) exemplifies transcultural narrative through its expansive thematic range. Her stories masterfully blend romance with realism in their fictional structure, erasing geographical borders through narratives set across diverse locations—from Egypt to Vietnam and Afghanistan. Literary critic Aamer Hussein noted that Hina’s work documents “histories of war and displacement, lost homes and destroyed hopes,” with references ranging from “classical poetry of the subcontinent to events that can be found in yesterday’s newspapers”.
Anwar Ghalib’s philosophical fiction
Anwar Ghalib explored profound philosophical themes in her collections “Naddi” (The Stream, 1982) and “Abu Zamaan” (The Father Time, 1992). “Naddi” examines the eternal conflict between Body and Soul, meanwhile “Abu Zamaan” portrays sharp psychological antagonisms between varied mindsets. Through these works, Ghalib established herself among important female fiction writers who expanded women’s literary horizons following Independence.
Sabiha Shah and the Gulf experience
With increasing Pakistani migration to Gulf States, Sabiha Shah pioneered a new literary focus by portraying the experiences of Pakistani engineers and technical workers abroad. Her short story collection “Sheeshay ka Saiban” (The Glass Tent, 1990) offers vivid accounts of expatriate life in these oil-rich nations.
Farhat Parveen’s stories of immigrant struggle
First-hand understanding of immigrant experiences shapes Farhat Parveen’s collection “Munjamid” (The Frozen Ones, 1997). As a medical doctor residing in the United States, Parveen provides authentic accounts of Pakistani and Asian immigrants, focusing primarily on family adjustment challenges in unfamiliar environments.
Pakistani English literature writers abroad
Over the past two decades, Pakistani Literature in English has gained substantial international recognition. This growing diaspora literature encompasses diverse voices like Mushtaq Bilal, Farah Habib, Soniah Kamal, and Sehba Sarwar, whose works tackle themes of “displacement, migration, and women’s issues”. According to Muneeza Shamsie, these writers “challenge stereotypes that patriarchal cultures in Pakistan and the diaspora have imposed on them, both as women and as writers”.
Conclusion
Pakistani literature in English has undoubtedly undergone remarkable transformations since Qurratulain Hyder’s pioneering work “Aag ka Darya” first established the framework for modern Pakistani fiction. Throughout this literary journey, novels have served as powerful vessels for examining national identity, historical trauma, and societal change. From Abdullah Husain’s portrayal of generational suffering to Intizar Husain’s mythological explorations, Pakistani writers have consistently adapted their narrative techniques to reflect the nation’s evolving circumstances.
After the traumatic separation of East Pakistan in 1971, fiction took a decidedly introspective turn. Writers like Masud Mufti documented firsthand experiences of this national tragedy, while others used literature to process collective disillusionment. Subsequently, the political climate of the late 1970s and early 1980s pushed authors toward mysticism, absurdism, and protest writing as alternatives to straightforward realism. Anwar Sajjad critiqued authoritarianism through symbolic fiction, whereas Anis Nagi pioneered absurdist narratives that challenged conventional storytelling.
Women writers have certainly carved significant space within this literary tradition. Their contributions range from Zahida Hina’s transcultural narratives that erase geographical borders to Sabiha Shah’s groundbreaking portrayals of Pakistani expatriate experiences in Gulf states. Additionally, diaspora authors have brought Pakistani literature to global attention, addressing themes of displacement and cultural identity while challenging stereotypes.
Pakistani English literature thus stands as a dynamic reflection of the nation’s complex historical journey. The evolution from partition narratives to diaspora fiction mirrors Pakistan’s own development as a nation still defining itself. Though rooted in specific historical contexts, these literary works ultimately speak to universal human experiences of displacement, identity, and resilience. Pakistani English literature therefore continues to flourish both at home and abroad, expanding its boundaries while maintaining connections to its rich cultural foundations.
