In the late 16th century, a group of talented writers emerged who would revolutionize English literature and drama. These individuals, known as the University Wits, were educated at Oxford or Cambridge and brought their academic knowledge to the London theater scene. Their work had a profound influence on the development of Elizabethan literature, paving the way for future literary giants like William Shakespeare.
The University Wits included Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, John Lyly, and Thomas Nashe, among others. Each of these writers made unique contributions to English drama and prose. We will explore the rise of the University Wits, delve into the lives and works of key figures like Marlowe and Greene, and examine their lasting impact on literature. We’ll also look at why they were called University Wits and discuss their significant role in shaping the English dramatic tradition.
The Rise of the University Wits
Definition and origins
The University Wits were a group of talented writers who emerged in the late 16th century and had a significant impact on English literature and drama. This term, coined by George Saintsbury, a 19th-century literary historian, refers to a distinctive group of playwrights and pamphleteers who were active during the Elizabethan era. These individuals received their education at prestigious universities, notably Oxford and Cambridge, which greatly influenced their writing styles and content.
The University Wits played a crucial role in shaping the early English Renaissance period. They transformed the native interlude and chronicle play into potentially great drama by writing plays of quality and diversity. In doing so, they paved the way for future playwrights, including the iconic William Shakespeare.
Historical context
The rise of the University Wits occurred during a time of significant cultural and artistic change in England. The late 16th century saw a shift from medieval morality plays to more sophisticated forms of drama. Interludes, which were short, simple dramatic entertainments often performed at the homes of nobility, were giving way to more complex theatrical productions.
The University Wits were seen as bridges between the academic and popular traditions, blending elements from both to create a unique and influential body of work. They were influenced by both the academic dramas of their predecessors, such as Thomas Sackville, and the more popular, although often anonymous, theater of the late 16th century.
Key members
The group of University Wits included several prominent writers who made substantial contributions to English literature and theater. Some of the key members were:
- Christopher Marlowe: Considered the greatest poetic dramatist among the University Wits, Marlowe’s handling of blank verse gave the theater its characteristic voice for the next 50 years. His play “Tamburlaine” was instrumental in turning the London Stage into a thriving industry.
- Robert Greene: A prolific writer, Greene produced numerous works over a 12-year period, including pamphlets, proto-novels, and plays.
- John Lyly: The earliest of the Wits to gain public awareness, Lyly’s work “Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit” made him famous and gave rise to the ornate style known as euphuism.
- Thomas Nashe: Along with Greene, Nashe is credited with launching the English periodical press as a viable industry through their volley of pamphlets.
- George Peele: A contemporary of Greene, Peele contributed to the development of English drama during this period.
- Thomas Lodge: Connected with the group through time, location, and works, Lodge played a role in shaping the literary landscape of the time.
- Thomas Kyd: Although not university-trained, Kyd is often included among the University Wits due to his significant contributions to English drama.
These writers collectively transformed play writing from its prior forms, introducing new ideas and themes such as introspection, revenge, tragic heroes with character flaws, blank verse, and mixtures of verse and prose. Their innovative styles and thematic explorations continue to be celebrated as foundational contributions to English literature and drama.
Christopher Marlowe: The Trailblazer
Christopher Marlowe, one of the most prominent University Wits, had a significant impact on English literature and drama. His innovative use of language and dramatic techniques set the stage for future playwrights, including William Shakespeare.
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Early life and education
Born in Canterbury, England, in 1564, Marlowe was the son of a shoemaker. His exceptional intellect was recognized early, and he received a scholarship to attend the prestigious King’s School in Canterbury. This opportunity allowed him to gain a rigorous education, which was considered the best available at the time.
At King’s School, Marlowe’s day began at 6 am with religious studies and ended at 5 pm with prayers. The curriculum included Latin grammar, classical literature, and history. Students were encouraged to compose Latin poetry and perform plays in Latin and Greek. This early exposure to drama likely influenced Marlowe’s future career as a playwright.
Marlowe’s talent continued to open doors for him. At the age of sixteen and a half, he was awarded a scholarship to Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. To secure this opportunity, he had to demonstrate his mastery of Latin verse, plain-song singing, and grammar. During his time at Cambridge, Marlowe honed his poetic skills by translating works from Latin into English, laying the foundation for his future as a poet-dramatist.
Major works
Marlowe’s literary career was brief but prolific. He is believed to have written his first full-length play, “The True History of George Scanderbeg,” while still a student. This work, now lost, was based on the life of a heroic Christian prince who fought against Turkish rule.
His most famous plays include “Tamburlaine the Great,” “Doctor Faustus,” “The Jew of Malta,” and “Edward II.” These works explored themes of power, ambition, and the human condition. “Tamburlaine the Great” was particularly significant as it marked the birth of Shakespearean drama and took London’s theater world by storm.
“Doctor Faustus” is considered Marlowe’s masterpiece. Based on the German Faustbuch, it was the first dramatized version of the Faust legend, in which a man sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power. Marlowe’s treatment of this story was groundbreaking, as he deviated from tradition by having his hero unable to repent at the end of the play.
Innovative use of blank verse
Marlowe’s most significant contribution to English literature was his innovative use of blank verse. He was the first to achieve critical acclaim for this technique, which became the standard for Elizabethan drama. Blank verse allowed for greater flexibility and expressiveness in dramatic dialog.
In “Tamburlaine,” Marlowe demonstrated his mastery of blank verse by incorporating the melody of Spenser and creating a new driving power by reinforcing the sentence period against the line period. This approach marked a departure from the rhymed couplet and the pastoral tone of earlier works.
Marlowe further developed his use of blank verse in “Doctor Faustus.” He broke up the line to increase intensity, particularly in the last soliloquy. He also introduced a new conversational tone in the dialogs between Faustus and the devil, showcasing the versatility of blank verse.
The impact of Marlowe’s “mighty line,” as Ben Jonson called it, cannot be overstated. His use of blank verse influenced subsequent playwrights, including Shakespeare and Milton. Marlowe’s ability to create music and sensational effects without relying on rhyming words set a new standard for English drama and poetry.
Robert Greene: The Prolific Writer
Literary career
Robert Greene, one of the prominent University Wits, had a remarkable literary career that spanned over a decade. He was known for his prolific output, producing numerous works across various genres. Greene’s literary activity was exceptional, and he quickly rose to popularity among readers in London. His romances and poetry were eagerly consumed by an increasingly literate audience in the city.
Greene’s versatility as a writer was evident in his ability to adapt to different literary styles and trends. He initially followed the fashion set by John Lyly’s “Euphues,” but later shifted to writing prose pastorals in the manner of Sir Philip Sidney’s “Arcadia.” These works were interspersed with charming lyrics that have contributed to Greene’s reputation as a poet.
One of Greene’s most notable works in this genre was “Pandosto,” published in 1588. This pastoral romance gained significant importance as it later became the direct source for William Shakespeare’s play “The Winter’s Tale.” Greene’s influence on Shakespeare and other contemporary writers highlights his role in shaping the literary landscape of the Elizabethan era.
Notable works
While Greene’s dramatic works were of secondary importance to his career, he left behind five surviving plays that showcase his talent as a playwright. Among these, “The Honorable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay” stands out as his best dramatic work. This play, which at first glance appears to be inspired by Christopher Marlowe’s “Doctor Faustus,” is considered superior and demonstrates Greene’s ability to craft engaging comedies.
Another notable play by Greene is “The Scottish History of James the Fourth,” which, despite its title, is more of an exceptional melodrama than a historical play. Greene’s dramatic works often incorporated elements of romance, comedy, and even fairy lore, as seen in “James the Fourth,” which features characters like Oberon and Bohan.
In addition to his plays, Greene was famous for his numerous prose pamphlets. These works covered a wide range of topics, including life lessons, inspiration, and insights into human nature. Greene’s ability to delve into the psychology of his characters and offer practical advice made his works popular among readers.
Controversy with Shakespeare
Greene’s most infamous contribution to literary history came in the form of a posthumously published pamphlet titled “Greene’s Groat’s-worth of Wit bought with a Million of Repentance.” In this work, Greene made the first known printed reference to William Shakespeare as a playwright. However, this reference was far from complimentary.
In a scathing critique, Greene referred to Shakespeare as an “upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers.” This attack accused Shakespeare of plagiarism and implied that he was an actor overstepping his bounds by writing plays. Greene’s criticism suggests that Shakespeare was already well-established as both a dramatist and actor by this time.
The controversy surrounding this attack has made Greene best remembered as the first negative critic of Shakespeare. Ironically, despite his harsh words, Greene’s own work “Pandosto” would later serve as inspiration for one of Shakespeare’s plays.
Greene’s critique of Shakespeare reflects the competitive nature of the London theater scene during the late 16th century. It also highlights the tensions that existed between university-educated writers like Greene and those, like Shakespeare, who lacked formal higher education but were gaining prominence in the literary world.
John Lyly: Master of Euphuism
John Lyly, one of the prominent University Wits, made a significant impact on English literature through his unique writing style known as euphuism. This innovative approach to prose had a profound influence on the literary landscape of Elizabethan England and beyond.
Euphues and its impact
Lyly’s most renowned work, “Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit,” published in 1578, marked the beginning of his literary career and established him as a best-selling author. The book’s popularity led to a sequel, “Euphues and His England,” published in 1580. These works were instrumental in introducing and popularizing the euphuistic style.
The name “Euphues” is derived from the Greek word “euphuēs,” meaning graceful or witty. Lyly adopted this name from Roger Ascham’s “The Scholemaster,” which described Euphues as an ideal student with a natural aptitude for learning.
The impact of “Euphues” was immediate and far-reaching. It became a literary sensation, with both works going through over thirty editions by 1630. Lyly’s prose style was widely imitated by other writers of the time, including Robert Greene and Thomas Lodge. The popularity of euphuism was such that it was said to influence the conversation style at Queen Elizabeth’s court.
Contribution to prose style
Lyly’s euphuistic style has a significant impact on the development of English prose. It is characterized by several distinct features:
- An abundance of short, parallel phrases and sentences
- The use of fantastic similes drawn from natural history and mythology
- Frequent use of alliteration
- Antithesis and balance in sentence structure
- Incorporation of proverbs and aphorisms
This highly affected and ornate style was a departure from previous forms of English prose. Lyly’s writing demonstrated that prose could be a vehicle for artistic expression on par with poetry. His use of language was particularly noted for its nimbleness and wit, representing an important step forward in English dramatic art.
Euphuism helped to make prose a more flexible and expressive medium. It appeared at a time of experimentation with prose styles and offered a lighter, more fanciful alternative to previous writing. This contribution to the evolution of English prose cannot be overstated.
Influence on drama
While Lyly is primarily remembered for his prose works, his influence extended to drama as well. He wrote several plays for the court of Queen Elizabeth I, at least six of which were performed before her. These plays helped introduce a theater of ideas to the English court.
Lyly’s dramas were characterized by their use of euphuistic language, minimal action, and focus on intellectual debates rather than physical conflicts. For example, in his play “Campaspe,” the conflict centers not on the action itself but on the philosophical questions the characters must consider to resolve their dilemmas.
The influence of Lyly’s dramatic works can be seen in the plays of William Shakespeare. Shakespeare drew inspiration from Lyly’s comedies, particularly in works such as “Love’s Labor’s Lost,” “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” and “As You Like It.” Shakespeare both imitated and parodied the euphuistic style in his plays, demonstrating its lasting impact on English drama.
While euphuism eventually fell out of fashion, its influence on the development of English literature was significant. Lyly’s contributions helped shape the literary landscape of the Elizabethan era and beyond, cementing his place among the University Wits who played a crucial role in the evolution of English drama and prose.
Thomas Nashe: The Satirical Pamphleteer
Thomas Nashe, born in 1567 in Lowestoft, Suffolk, England, was a prominent figure among the University Wits. He made significant contributions to English literature as a playwright, poet, and satirist. Nashe’s work helped to establish the dominant literary voice of Queen Elizabeth I’s reign in English drama and prose.
Literary style
Nashe’s prose is characterized by its excoriating and brilliant wit. He had the ability to move effortlessly from the style of a sermon to brutal satirical onslaughts, juxtaposing learned classical references with observations of everyday life. His writing is known for its long, carefully constructed sentences that make inspiring and disturbing connections.
One of Nashe’s most distinctive features was his eye for unsettling details. For example, in “The Unfortunate Traveler” (1594), he describes a tortured man’s fingernails as looking like half-opened shop shutters. This attention to detail, combined with his quick turns of phrase and clever verbal assaults, made his work both engaging and provocative.
Nashe’s style has a significant impact on the development of English prose. He had the panache to combine colloquial diction with idiosyncratic coined compounds, creating a vigorous and unique voice that was ideal for controversy. This approach to writing expanded the range and possibilities of English literature.
Notable works
Among Nashe’s most notable works is “Pierce Penilesse His Supplication to the Divell” (1592), a satire that became one of the most popular Elizabethan pamphlets. The story is told from the perspective of Pierce, a man who has not met with good fortune and bitterly complains about the world’s wickedness. Nashe’s complex, witty, and anecdotal style shines through in this work, which is peppered with newly-minted words and Latin phrases.
Another significant work is “Summer’s Last Will and Testament” (1592, published 1600), a masque-like entertainment written while Nashe was staying at Croydon Palace. This play describes the death of Summer, who reviews the performance of his former servants before passing the crown to Autumn. It contains three short poems that are frequently reprinted in anthologies of Elizabethan verse.
Nashe’s novel “The Unfortunate Traveler” (1594) is considered the first picaresque novel in English. This work, which follows the adventures of Jack Wilton, remains Nashe’s most popular to date and showcases his ability to blend satire with narrative storytelling.
Other notable works include “Christ’s Tears Over Jerusalem” (1593), a pamphlet that, despite its devotional nature, contained satirical material that offended London civic authorities, and “The Terrors of the Night” (1594), a book that skeptically considers dreams, nightmares, and apparitions.
Contribution to prose
Nashe’s contributions to English prose were significant and far-reaching. He helped shape English literature as we understand it today by expanding its range and possibilities. His ability to produce lines of astonishing beauty alongside biting satire has made his work the subject of animated academic discussion for centuries.
One of Nashe’s most famous lines, “Brightness falls from the air,” from “Summer’s Last Will and Testament,” has been widely referenced by novelists, poets, and critics, including James Joyce, W. B. Yeats, and William Empson. This demonstrates the lasting impact of Nashe’s work on English literature.
Nashe’s style has the distinction of being the only one in English literary history to inspire authorities to threaten to close down theaters and censor the press. His works were named in the Bishops’ Ban of 1599, which forbade satire, highlighting the power and controversy of his writing.
In conclusion, Thomas Nashe’s role as a satirical pamphleteer and his contributions to English prose solidify his place among the University Wits who played a crucial role in the evolution of English drama and literature. His innovative style, biting wit, and ability to blend high and low culture in his writing continue to influence and intrigue readers and scholars to this day.
Conclusion
The University Wits had a profound impact on English literature and drama during the Elizabethan era. Their innovative approaches to language, storytelling, and character development paved the way for future literary giants. The contributions of Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, John Lyly, and Thomas Nashe, among others, helped shape the English dramatic tradition and left a lasting legacy in the world of literature.
These talented writers brought their academic knowledge to the London theater scene, blending classical learning with popular entertainment. Their work laid the groundwork for the Golden Age of English drama that followed. The University Wits’ influence can still be seen in modern literature and theater, making their contributions an essential part of literary history to study and appreciate.
